Europe in 1848.
#Map of Eurpope in 1848, #Revolutions in France, #Revolutions in Germany, #Revolutions in Austria, #Revolutions in Italy, #Revolutions in Romania and Hungary, #U.S. Reactions, #Immediate Effects, #Lasting Effects, #Bibliography.
By 1848, liberals and radicals were convinced that the Metternich system had outlived its usefulness. Nationalists believed it was time to replace old-fashioned empires with new nation-states. With so many Europeans wishing for such a dramatic change in government, it was only a matter of time until the continent erupted. The spark that ignited Europe came in January of that year, when there was a revolution in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Over the next four months, fifty similar revolts occurred in Europe. Every area except Great Britain and Russia was plagued by revolutions.
Europe in 1848.
A French barricade fight.
The string of revolutions that occurred in 1848, all started by France's revolts against their ruler. The revolutionaries in France wanted to establish a democratic government. In February of 1848, Louis Phillippe's government was replaced by a temporary government because of Paris uprisings. This new temporary government was led by Alphonse de Lamartine, a romantic poet. France was declared a republic with Lamartine's words: "Down with Royalty!" However, this new government did not last long. French radicals were split in two groups. One group led by Lamartine and one led by Louis Blanc. Lamartine and his group only wanted political reform. Blanc and his group wanted both political and economic reform. Blanc's group also wanted the government to make jobs for the unemployed. Jobs were soon made, and then discarded by Lamartine's government. The "throwing out" of these jobs caused workers to rebel. Before they could be stopped, more than 10,000 workers were killed. After this more violent approach to reform, a liberal government was set up. A constitution called for a parliament and a president elected by the people. The French presidential election, that was held in December of 1848, put out the results: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. He got support from peasants and nationalists. After 1848, Louis Napoleon broke the oath he agreed to "remain faithful to the democratic Republic and to defend the Constitution." He also got rid of Parliament and declared himself the ruler of France. The French revolutionaries had failed and all went back to how it was before. By 1851, there was no democratic government and Louis Napoleon was the sole ruler of France.
The flag of a briefly united Germany.
On March 15, 1848 revolution broke out in Berlin. Then again in March, delegates met in Frankfurt to discuss a unified Germany. This meeting called for a universal manhood suffrage election to form a national assembly to govern a unified Germany. In May of 1848, delegates met again in Frankfurt and began to form a democratic constitution. This constitution gave the assembly itself executive control over a unified Germany. The liberals hoped for a reformed Germany, but Conservative forces saw their weaknesses. Some of these weaknesses were that liberals had many different aims, and that they left out some of their lower class supporters. Soon, as more and more supporters left, there were few liberals to go up against the many conservatives. The National Assembly published its Constitution and Fredrich Wilhelm was elected Germany's first emperor, though he declined the crown, believing the vote to be inferior as it came from the German people rather than princes. After Friedrich Wilhelm's abdication, the assembly disbanded. Later, the German Confederation was reestablished by the Conservatives, who held their power even tighter than before.
Frankfurt National Assembly.
In February of 1848, the second Republic in France shook Austria. The Hapsburg Empire expected war, which worked to the revolutionaries advantage. Metternich resigned in mid-March. In May, the Hapsbug lands got an elected constituent assembly. This assembly opened the Austrian Parliament in July of 1848. In May, German nationalists and liberals assembled in Frankfurt that suspended the diet of the German Confederation and took steps towards German unification. The Austrian government began to take charge in the fall of 1848. The minister-president made the government commit to popular liberties and constitutional institutions and the unity of the empire. December 2, 1848 Emperor Franz Joseph I was crowned. He remade Austrian leadership in Germany.
In the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, a revolution broke out in January of 1848. On March 18, 1848, revolutions brook out in Milan. The Milanese defeated the Austrians. The Papal States were given a Constitution. On March 22nd, in Venice, a revolution broke out causing the Venetian Republic to become re-established. Pope Pius IX fled Italy because he could not fight against Catholic Austria. This gave Gieuesseppe Mazzini a chance to unify Italy. However, his efforts were not rewarded. The Italians valued their independence and they protected it very well. In July of 1848 Austrian troops marched back into Milan, and over took it....As it was before. In November, the appointed Prime Minister of the Papal States, Pelligrino Rossi was assassinated and the Pope fled to Genoa. This left the Romans to declare the Roman Republic.
In early 1848, revolts were sweeping Europe that affected Austria and Hungary alike. Hungary's Diet, or parliament, saw an opportunity to abolish serfdom and feudal privileges as well as giving those a right to freedom of the press and religion. This reform legislation also made Transylvania and Hungary united. The Transylvanian Diet voted for unification as well. The Romanians did not take part in this decision at all. Later, Romanian peasants and miners protested the union with Hungary and demanded the representation of Romanians in the Transylvanian Diet. Battles were ignited between Hungarian troops and imperial forces. Under Austrian command, Romanian troops fought in Transylvania against the Hungarians. The Hungarians were victorious in these battles. Later the Emperor, Franz Josef, got an appeal and sent Russian troops who demolished the revolution. The Austrians imposed a repressive regime on Hungary and ruled Transylvania through a military governor. This left Austrian rule over Hungary as it was before.
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln.
When the revolutions were going on in Europe, a revolution of a different nature was beginning to sweep the United States. The nationalistic ideals of the French Revolution were being revived in the U.S. as in Europe. This resulted in conflicts between the northern and southern states. Soon, these conflicts would escalate, and the United States Civil War would begin. In an interesting August 6, 1863 letter to President Lincoln, Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian revolutionary, wrote about emancipation and the Civil War.
"You [President Lincoln] are a true heir of the teaching given us by Christ and John Brown. If an entire race of human beings, subjugated into slavery by human egoism, has been restored to human dignity, to civilisation and human love, this is by your doing and at the price of the most noble lives in America."
"It is America, the same country which taught liberty to our forefathers, which now opens another solemn epoch of human progress. And while your tremendous courage astonishes the world, we are sadly reminded how this old Europe, which also can boast a great cause of liberty to fight for, has not found the mind or heart to equal you."
The Revolutions of 1848 had very few immediate effects. By spring of that year, many revolts had begun to die down. The revolutionaries all agreed that they wanted to get rid of the old governments, but they disagreed about what to do next. These disagreements resulted in a lack of organisation, which made it difficult for revolutionaries to continue to resist the armies of returning monarchs. Thus, by 1849, Europe had practically returned to its pre-1848 status.
Though the Revolutions of 1848 had few short-term effects, if any, they did have some long-term effects. The new governments set up as a result of the revolutions could easily be dismantled, but the forces of change could not be destroyed. Again and again throughout the course of history there would be uprisings and demands for independence and an end to old empires. Also, the short-lived governments of 1848 were precursors to many more modern forms of government, such as liberalism and socialism, which are still around today. In addition, Louis Napoleon's election changed the rules of politics, proving that an absolute ruler could come to power through the ballot box.
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Abraham Lincoln. The White House. URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/WH/glimpse/presidents/html/al16.html/ (11 Dec. 2000).
Britannica.com Inc. "Revolutions of 1848." URL: http://www.britannica.com/seo/r/revolutions-of-1848/ (22 Oct. 2000).
Chastain, James, ed. Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. 1999. URL: http://cscwww.cats.ohiou.edu/~Chastain/index.htm/ (22 Oct. 2000).
Die Verwendeten Historischen Gem‰lde und Illustrationen. 1848: Flugschriften im Netz. URL: http://zaurak.tm.informatik.uni-frankfurt.de/1848/bilder/index.html/ (12 Dec. 2000).
Garibaldi, Giuseppe. "Letter to President Lincoln, August 6, 1863", "Speech on Religious Beliefs," "Proposals put to an International Congress for Peace at Geneva, 1867." Reformation.org. 1999. URL: http://www.reformation.org/garibaldi_lincoln.html/ (5 Nov. 2000).
The preceeding primary source of immense interest was a letter from Italian military leader Giuseppe Garibaldi to United States President Abraham Lincoln. In the letter, Garibaldi congratulated Lincoln for his stance on slavery, and encouraged him in the face of a civil war. This letter was incredibly helpful in understanding United States reactons to the revoi\lutions, and in connecting the European events of 1848 with those in the U.S. I quoted this letter in the section titled "U.S. Reactions to the Revolutions."
Halsall, Paul. "1848: Europe in Revolt." The Internet Modern History Sourcebook. URL: http://www.fordham.eduhalsall/mod/modsbook19.html/ (17 Oct. 2000).
Koeller, David W. "Revolutions of Liberal Nationalism." URL: http://www.campus.northpark.edu/history/Webchron/WestEurope/LiberalRevs.html/ (22 Oct. 2000).
Mazzini, Giuseppe. "On Nationality, 1852." Modern History Sourcebook. URL: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1852mazzini.html/ (5 Nov. 2000).
In this primary source, Giuseppi Mazzini, Italian nationalist leader, states his views on nationality.This primary source was helpful in understanding some of the nationalistic ideas which caused the revolutions to occur at that particular time in history, and the motives behind the revolutions.
Mazzini, Joseph. "An Essay on the Duties of Man Addressed to Workingmen." Hanover Historical Texts Project. URL: http://history.hanover.edu/texts/mazzini/mazintro.htm/ (5 Nov. 2000).
Here Giuseppi Mazzini yet again stated his nationalistic views. In this essay, Mazzini spread many of his political beliefs. Much like the other essay written by Mazzini which I used, this essay helped me understand some of the ideas behind the revoltions.
Postgate, Raymond. Story of a Year: 1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
"Raum 21 - Die Revolution von 1848." URL: http://www.dhm.de/ausstellungen/bildzeug/21.html/ (22 Oct. 2000).
"Revolutions of 1848." Encyclopedia.com. 1994. URL: http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/10920.html/ (22 Oct. 2000).
"Revolutions of 1848." URL: http://www.hyperhistory.com/online_n2/civil_n2/histscript6_n2/rev_48.html/ (22 Oct. 2000).
"Sicilian Uprising Starts a Year of European Revolutions." History Today. 2000. URL: http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m1373/n1_v48/20227243/p1/article.jhtml/ (22 Oct. 2000).
Silva, Brett. "Revolutions of 1848," "1848 Personalities," "1848 Timeline," "The Revolutions of 1848," "1848 Questions." Silvapage. URL: http://www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/projects/revs/1848essy.html/ (22 Oct. 2000).
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